Cyber Abuse

Cyber Abuse

Cyber abuse refers to online behavior that intimidates, threatens, harasses, humiliates or harm a person. Behaviors considered abusive and therefore criminal depend on technological means used, the amount of harm cause, and current laws that outlaw specific activities. It is carried out through internet, websites, instant messaging, and mobile technologies. The purpose of this paper is to review different sources of literature on cyber abuse.

Definition

Webber & Ovedovitz (2018) defined cyber bullying or harassment as any behavior carried through digital or electronic media by groups or individuals that repeatedly communicate hostile messages aimed at inflicting harm on other people. This definition underscores several important features of cyberbullying: the tools used, the hostile nature of the act, the form it takes, and the intent to harm. Although definitions of cyberbullying vary across studies, there is some sort of consensus on four criteria including power imbalance, intentions to harm, use of electronic tools and repeatedly using aggression (Vaillancourt, Faris, & Mishna, 2017).

Literature Review

Cyber abuse is a significant problem that transcend national boundaries. Advancement in information and communication technology has taken this abuse to the next level. Cyberbullying has its own unique features, which include; the wider potential audience, the anonymity of the perpetrator, the challenge of cutting oneself off from the online environment, and the lack of face-to-face contact (Ferrara, Ianniello, Villani & Corsello, 2018). Anonymity can result in amplified aggression and harassment because the bully feel out reach.

Shaikh, Rehman, and Amin (2020) maintain that the effects of cyberbullying and traditional bullying are different but the consequences are much the same.  The victims of both traditional bullying and cyber bullying cause distress, depression, loneliness, and psychological problems. Similarly, the perpetrators have intentions to harm. The evolution of ICT has moved bullying to the next level. As a result, cyberbullying is more dangerous than traditional bullying because the bully is anonymous.

The ongoing debate is whether cyberbullying is unique from or another form of traditional bullying. Some treat cyberbullying as another form of traditional bullying that extends the reach of bullying (Wolke D, Lee K, Guy, 2017). They conceptualize cyberbullying as an extension of traditional bullying in which a different tool is employed for harming victims who are already being harassed in more traditional ways. In other words, the victims of cyberbullying are bullied in traditional ways as well. Wolke D, Lee K, Guy, 2017 failed to recognize that there are some people who are only cyberbullying cyberbullied respectively. Others indicate that cyberbullying is fundamentally different and more than traditional bullying in terms of the consequences. Cyberbullying is easier to do than traditional bullying because the perpetrator and victim do not have to meet face-to-face. Perpetrators remain anonymous and online environment enable to evade punishment. In addition, the perpetrator does not have to know the target victim (Utami & Baiti, 2018). Its severity is associated with the attack seen by wider audiences who can view insulting comments, videos or photos  repeatedly and even share them (Vaillancourt, Faris, & Mishna, 2017). Moreover, the time, location, and context vary widely.  Online context is universally accessed by people of all age groups. With increased online access and use of ICT comes a higher risk of bullying and being bullied. Cyberbullying can continue in workplace, outside school hours, weekends and nights, and traverse geographic distances (Brody & Vangelish, 2017).

The prevalence of cyber abuse has increased in schools. Students are cyberbullied frequently through online harassment, flaming, trickery, masquerading, outing, exclusion and cyber stalking (Kowalski et al. 2018; Watts et al. 2017). Prevalence estimates differ significantly across studies. In a study to investigate the prevalence of cyberbullying, Rao et al. (2017) conducted a survey of 2590 students in different schools in Guangzhou. 45 percent of participants reported being a cyberbully while 28 percent being a bully in the past six months. In a related study conducted on Greek high school students, 62 percent of participants reported experiencing cyberbullying (Gkiomisi A, Gkrizioti M, Gkiomisi A, Anastasilakis DA, Kardaras). The difference in prevalence estimate has been attributed to methodological differences in cyberbullying definitions and measurements.

The consequences of cyberbullying range from social to behavior and psychological health problems. The forms of cyberbullying affect perpetrators and victims in relation to affective, academic, and psychosocial problems. Peled surveyed 630 Israeli university students to assess how cyberbullying affects academic, emotional and social development. The results indicated that cyberbullying exists in colleges and does affect students academically, socially, and emotionally. The study also revealed that cyberbullying is perpetuated through social media platforms, chat rooms, instant messaging, email, and texting. Victims of cyberbullying experience depression, suicidal ideation, substance abuse, family problems, academic problems and low self-esteem. Understanding the impact of cyberbullying on undergraduate students is important as these young people are more likely to bring these attitudes into the workforce or workplace.

Effects of cyberbullying range from suicidal attempts and ideation, anxiety, depression, externalizing behavior, substance abuse, school violence, low self-esteem, family problems, and somatic symptoms (Akcil, 2018; Shaikh, Rehman, & Amin, 2020; Varghese & Pistole, 2017, ). These effects vary as a function of victims vs. bullies, age group and gender. In a meta-analysis study, 26 found cyber victims to be at a greater risk of suicidal behavior and self-harm. In addition, bullies were at a greater risk of suicidal behavior. Tural Hesapcioglu, & Ercan, (2017) studies 1276 Turkish students and found high scores on victimization and bullying to be associated with higher depression, hostility, somatization, and anxiety.

Studies have reported poor mental health for cyber victims. In a Canadian sample of 4,886 school students, the researchers reported the odd ration of 5.02 for mental health, 6.17 for suicidal ideation, and 5.91 for psychological distress (46). This suggests that cyberbullying victimization is associated with mental health problems. The association shows that cyberbullying causes psychological and mental harm to defenseless victims.

Some of the risk factors of bullying include aggressiveness, narcissism, angry emotions, social anxiety, lack of empathy, exposure to online violence, previous cyberbullying behavior and excessive internet use (Dalbert, 2019). The latter has been associated to contribute to cyberbullying in many studies. The more time people spend online the more likely to become in cyberbullying (Dalbert, 2019). In one study of 13,864 students from Taiwan high schools, an equation analysis found internet use from 10 am to 3 pm was a significant predictor of cyberbullying behavior (Chao &Yu, 2017). Meeting strangers, game time, and social media are predictors of internet use in excessive and cyberbullying. In a longitudinal study to predict the time of increased cyberbullying, 888 adolescents filled self-report measures at two times (Gamez-Guadix, Borrajo, & Almendros, 2017). The results showed that problematic internet use at time one forecast increased cyberbullying half-year later at time two. The time spend online is a major predictor of cyberbullying.

Emotional empathy is positively related to helping behavior. Lack of empathy is association with perpetration narcissism and lack of empathy therefore predicts the cyberbullying behavior. High levels of emotional disengagement and unemotional traits are associated with cyberbullying and cyberbullying victimization.

Gender is a strong predictor of cyberbullying. A body of evidence on conventional bullying indicate that males are more likely to bully than females (Dalbert, 2019). Males tend to act physically aggressive toward their peers while female bullies are more likely to act indirectly. Because cyberbullying is more of an indirect aggression, it is expected that majority of perpetrators should be females. However, research examining gender differences in online bullying reveal mixed results (Brody & Vangelisti, 2017). Some studies have found males involved in bullying more than females while other studies females are involved more than males.

Conclusion

This study has reviewed various sources of literature on cyber abuse. From the literature review, cyber abuse has been defined as cyber behavior that intimidates, threatens, harasses, humiliates or harm a person. Cyber abuse is a serious problem because of its consequences on the victims and bullies. It causes mental, emotional, psychological and social problems. For students, it is associated with academic, violent, and behavior problems. Cyber abuse is different from conventional bullying and its consequences far reaching.

References

Akcil, S. (2018). Cyberbullying-Victimization, Acculturative Stress, and Depression Among International College Students. (PhD Thesis) Doctoral dissertation Kent State University.

Brochado, S., Soares, S., & Fraga, S. (2017). A scoping review on studies of cyberbullying prevalence among adolescents. Trauma Violence Abuse, 18: 523-531.

Brody, N., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2017). Cyberbullying: Topics, strategies, and sex differences.

Chao, C.M., & Yu, T.K. (2017). Associations among different internet access time, gender and cyberbullying behaviors in Taiwan’s adolescents. Frontier Psychology, 8: 1104

Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 739–748.

Dalbert, C. (2019). Unjust behavior in the digital space: The relation between cyber-bullying and justice beliefs and experiences. Social Psychology of Education. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1007/s11218-019-09530-5

Ferrara, P., & Ianniello, F., Villani, A., Corsello, G. (2018). Cyberbullying a modern form of bullying: let’s talk about this health and social problem. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 44(14), 2-3.

Gamez-Guadix, M., Borrajo, E., & Almendros, C. (2017). Risky online behaviors among adolescents: Longitudinal relations among problematic internet use, cyberbullying perpetration and meeting strangers online. Journal Behavior Addiction, 5: 100-107

Gkiomisi, A., Gkrizioti, M., Gkiomisi, A., Anastasilakis, D.A., & Kardaras, P. (2017). Cyberbullying among Greek high school adolescents. Indian Journal Pediatric, 84: 364-368.

Kowalski, R. Limber, S.P., McCord, A. (2018). A developmental approach to cyberbullying: prevalence and protective factors. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 45,20-32.

L.K. Watts, J. Wagner, B. Velasquez, P.I. Behrens. 2017. Cyberbullying in higher education: a literature review. Computing Human Behavior, 69 (2017), 68-274

Orue, I., & Calvete, E. (2017). Psychopathic traits and moral disengagement interact to predict Bullying and cyberbullying among adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence.

Peled, Y. (2019). Cyberbullying and its influence on academic, social, and emotional development of undergraduate students. Heliyon, 5(3), e01393

Rao. J., et al. (2017). Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among junior and senior high school students in Guangzhou, China. Injury Prevention, 25(1) 13-19.doi: 10.1136/injuryprev-2016-042210.

Sampasa-Kanyinga H. (2017). Co-occurring cyberbullying and school bullying victimization and associations with mental health problems among Canadian middle and high school students. Violence Victim, 32: 671-687

Tural Hesapcioglu, S., & Ercan, F. (2017). Traditional and cyberbullying co-occurrence and its relationship to psychiatric symptoms. Pediatric Interal, 59: 16-22.

Utami, A. S. F., & Baiti, N. (2018). Pengaruh Media Sosial Terhadap Perilaku Cyberbullying Pada Kalangan Remaja. Journal Humaniora, 18(2), 257–262.

Vaillancourt, T., Faris, R., & Mishna, F. (2017). Cyberbullying in children and youth: Implications for Health and clinical practice. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 62: 368-373.

Varghese, M.E., & Pistole. M.C. (2017). College student cyberbullying: self-esteem, depression, loneliness, and attachment. Journal of College Counselling, 20 (1),7-12

Webber, M. A., & Ovedovitz, A. C. (2018). Cyberbullying among College Students: A Look at Its Prevalence at a U.S. Catholic University. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 4(2), 101–107.

Wolke, D., Lee, K., & Guy, A. (2017). Cyberbullying: A storm in a teacup? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26: 899-908.